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<div class="section" id="numeric-and-mathematical-modules">
<span id="numeric"></span><h1>9. Numeric and Mathematical Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#numeric-and-mathematical-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
<p>The modules described in this chapter provide numeric and math-related functions
and data types. The <a title="Numeric abstract base classes (Complex, Real, Integral, etc.)." class="reference external" href="numbers.html#module-numbers"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">numbers</span></tt></a> module defines an abstract hierarchy of
numeric types. The <a title="Mathematical functions (sin() etc.)." class="reference external" href="math.html#module-math"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">math</span></tt></a> and <a title="Mathematical functions for complex numbers." class="reference external" href="cmath.html#module-cmath"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">cmath</span></tt></a> modules contain various
mathematical functions for floating-point and complex numbers. For users more
interested in decimal accuracy than in speed, the <a title="Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic Specification." class="reference external" href="decimal.html#module-decimal"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">decimal</span></tt></a> module supports
exact representations of decimal numbers.</p>
<p>The following modules are documented in this chapter:</p>
<ul>
<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference external" href="numbers.html">9.1. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">numbers</span></tt> — Numeric abstract base classes</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference external" href="numbers.html#the-numeric-tower">9.1.1. The numeric tower</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference external" href="numbers.html#notes-for-type-implementors">9.1.2. Notes for type implementors</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference external" href="numbers.html#adding-more-numeric-abcs">9.1.2.1. Adding More Numeric ABCs</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference external" href="numbers.html#implementing-the-arithmetic-operations">9.1.2.2. Implementing the arithmetic operations</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference external" href="math.html">9.2. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">math</span></tt> — Mathematical functions</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference external" href="math.html#number-theoretic-and-representation-functions">9.2.1. Number-theoretic and representation functions</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference external" href="math.html#power-and-logarithmic-functions">9.2.2. Power and logarithmic functions</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference external" href="math.html#trigonometric-functions">9.2.3. Trigonometric functions</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference external" href="math.html#angular-conversion">9.2.4. Angular conversion</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference external" href="math.html#hyperbolic-functions">9.2.5. Hyperbolic functions</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference external" href="math.html#constants">9.2.6. Constants</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference external" href="cmath.html">9.3. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">cmath</span></tt> — Mathematical functions for complex numbers</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference external" href="cmath.html#conversions-to-and-from-polar-coordinates">9.3.1. Conversions to and from polar coordinates</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference external" href="cmath.html#power-and-logarithmic-functions">9.3.2. Power and logarithmic functions</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference external" href="cmath.html#trigonometric-functions">9.3.3. Trigonometric functions</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference external" href="cmath.html#hyperbolic-functions">9.3.4. Hyperbolic functions</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference external" href="cmath.html#classification-functions">9.3.5. Classification functions</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference external" href="cmath.html#constants">9.3.6. Constants</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference external" href="decimal.html">9.4. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">decimal</span></tt> — Decimal fixed point and floating point arithmetic</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference external" href="decimal.html#quick-start-tutorial">9.4.1. Quick-start Tutorial</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference external" href="decimal.html#decimal-objects">9.4.2. Decimal objects</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference external" href="decimal.html#logical-operands">9.4.2.1. Logical operands</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference external" href="decimal.html#context-objects">9.4.3. Context objects</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference external" href="decimal.html#signals">9.4.4. Signals</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference external" href="decimal.html#floating-point-notes">9.4.5. Floating Point Notes</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference external" href="decimal.html#mitigating-round-off-error-with-increased-precision">9.4.5.1. Mitigating round-off error with increased precision</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference external" href="decimal.html#special-values">9.4.5.2. Special values</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference external" href="decimal.html#working-with-threads">9.4.6. Working with threads</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference external" href="decimal.html#recipes">9.4.7. Recipes</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference external" href="decimal.html#decimal-faq">9.4.8. Decimal FAQ</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference external" href="fractions.html">9.5. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">fractions</span></tt> — Rational numbers</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference external" href="random.html">9.6. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">random</span></tt> — Generate pseudo-random numbers</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference external" href="itertools.html">9.7. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">itertools</span></tt> — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference external" href="itertools.html#itertool-functions">9.7.1. Itertool functions</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference external" href="itertools.html#examples">9.7.2. Examples</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference external" href="itertools.html#recipes">9.7.3. Recipes</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference external" href="functools.html">9.8. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">functools</span></tt> — Higher order functions and operations on callable objects</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference external" href="functools.html#partial-objects">9.8.1. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">partial</span></tt> Objects</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference external" href="operator.html">9.9. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">operator</span></tt> — Standard operators as functions</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference external" href="operator.html#mapping-operators-to-functions">9.9.1. Mapping Operators to Functions</a></li>
</ul>
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